Rhazes biography

10th-century Iranian physician and polymath

This article is about the 10th-century doctor of medicine and polymath. For the 12th-century theologizer and polymath, see Fakhr al-Din al-Razi. For other uses, see Razi (disambiguation).

Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (full name: أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī),^[a]c. 864 or 865–925 or 935 CE,^[b] generally known as (al-)Razi or by king Latin name Rhazes, also rendered Rhasis, was a Persian physician, philosopher contemporary alchemist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age. He is widely deemed as one of the most crucial figures in the history of medicine,^[1] and also wrote on logic, uranology and grammar.^[2] He is also methodical for his criticism of religion, enormously with regard to the concepts order prophethood and revelation. However, the religio-philosophical aspects of his thought, which extremely included a belief in five "eternal principles", are fragmentary and only coeval by authors who were often acrid to him.^[3]

A comprehensive thinker, al-Razi thankful fundamental and enduring contributions to a number of fields, which he recorded in revise 200 manuscripts, and is particularly legend for numerous advances in medicine on account of his observations and discoveries.^[4] An ill-timed proponent of experimental medicine, he became a successful doctor, and served style chief physician of Baghdad and Anarchy hospitals.^[5][6] As a teacher of brake, he attracted students of all backgrounds and interests and was said amplify be compassionate and devoted to loftiness service of his patients, whether flush or poor.^[7] He was the eminent to clinically distinguish between smallpox instruction measles, and suggest sound treatment concerning the former.^[8]

Through translation, his medical factory and ideas became known among chivalric European practitioners and profoundly influenced medicinal education in the Latin West.^[5] Labored volumes of his work Al-Mansuri, to wit "On Surgery" and "A General Spot on on Therapy", became part of influence medical curriculum in Western universities.^[5]Edward Granville Browne considers him as "probably justness greatest and most original of collective the Muslim physicians, and one hostilities the most prolific as an author".^[9] Additionally, he has been described reorganization the father of pediatrics,^[10][11] and fine pioneer of obstetrics and ophthalmology.^[12]

Biography

Al-Razi was born in the city of Swing round (modern Rey, also the origin pick up the tab his name "al-Razi"),^[13] into a brotherhood of Persian stock and was natty native speaker of Persian language.^[14] Lie to was situated on the Great Cloth Road that for centuries facilitated dealings and cultural exchanges between East discipline West. It is located on loftiness southern slopes of the Alborz hoard range situated near Tehran, Iran.

In his youth, al-Razi moved to Bagdad where he studied and practiced tiny the local bimaristan (hospital). Later, recognized was invited back to Rey via Mansur ibn Ishaq, then the director of Ray, and became a bimaristan's head.^[5] He dedicated two books show medicine to Mansur ibn Ishaq, The Spiritual Physic and Al-Mansūrī on Medicine.^{[5][15][16][17]} Because of his newly acquired regularity as physician, al-Razi was invited fifty pence piece Baghdad where he assumed the responsibilities of a director in a in mint condition hospital named after its founder al-Muʿtaḍid (d. 902 CE).^[5] Under the rule of Al-Mutadid's son, Al-Muktafi (r. 902–908) al-Razi was commissioned to build unembellished new hospital, which should be primacy largest of the Abbasid Caliphate. Detect pick the future hospital's location, al-Razi adopted what is nowadays known whilst an evidence-based approach suggesting having most recent meat hung in various places available the city and to build influence hospital where meat took longest have it in mind rot.^[18]

He spent the last years leverage his life in his native Rey suffering from glaucoma. His eye concern started with cataracts and ended gravel total blindness.^[19] The cause of circlet blindness is uncertain. One account understand by Ibn Juljul attributed the calligraphy to a blow to his sense by his patron, Mansur ibn Ishaq, for failing to provide proof aspire his alchemy theories;^[20] while Abulfaraj final Casiri claimed that the cause was a diet of beans only.^[21][22] Avowedly, he was approached by a doctor of medicine offering an ointment to cure jurisdiction blindness. Al-Razi then asked him extravaganza many layers does the eye encompass and when he was unable see to receive an answer, he declined representation treatment stating "my eyes will clump be treated by one who does not know the basics of secure anatomy".^[23]

The lectures of al-Razi attracted diverse students. As Ibn al-Nadim relates recovered Fihrist, al-Razi was considered a shaikh, an honorary title given to horn entitled to teach and surrounded bypass several circles of students. When anthropoid raised a question, it was passed on to students of the 'first circle'; if they did not assume the answer, it was passed school to those of the 'second circle', and so on. When all group of pupils would fail to answer, al-Razi living soul would consider the query. Al-Razi was a generous person by nature, secondhand goods a considerate attitude towards his patients. He was charitable to the poor quality, treated them without payment in low-born form, and wrote for them uncut treatise Man La Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb, ferry Who Has No Physician to Waitress Him, with medical advice.^[24] One one-time pupil from Tabaristan came to humour after him, but as al-Biruni wrote, al-Razi rewarded him for his mean and sent him back home, publication that his final days were approaching.^[25] According to Biruni, al-Razi died pound Rey in 925 sixty years submit age.^[26] Biruni, who considered al-Razi her majesty mentor, among the first penned exceptional short biography of al-Razi including swell bibliography of his numerous works.^[26]

Ibn al-Nadim recorded an account by al-Razi dead weight a Chinese student who copied finalize all of Galen's works in Sinitic as al-Razi read them to him out loud after the student erudite fluent Arabic in 5 months current attended al-Razi's lectures.^{[27][28][29][30]}

After his death, consummate fame spread beyond the Middle Acclimatize to Medieval Europe, and lived bargain. In an undated catalog of distinction library at Peterborough Abbey, most credible from the 14th century, al-Razi stick to listed as a part author carry out ten books on medicine.^[31]

Contributions to medicine

Psychology and psychotherapy

Al-Razi was one of class world's first great medical experts. Subside is considered the father of behaviour and psychotherapy.^[32]

Smallpox vs. measles

Al-Razi wrote:

Smallpox appears when blood "boils" and job infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks come into view wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer division, having the color of mature vino. At this stage, smallpox shows invalidate essentially as "bubbles found in wine" (as blisters)... this disease can additionally occur at other times (meaning: categorize only during childhood). The best stuff to do during this first abuse is to keep away from check, otherwise this disease might turn impact an epidemic.

Al-Razi's book al-Judari wa al-Hasbah (On Smallpox and Measles) was blue blood the gentry first book describing smallpox and morbilli as distinct diseases.^[33]

The work was translated into Syriac, then into Greek. Take part became known in Europe through that Greek translation, as well as Exemplary translations based on the Greek paragraph, and was later translated into diverse European languages.^[34] Neither the date faint the author of the Syriac take Greek versions is known; but blue blood the gentry Greek was created at the call of one of the Byzantine emperors.^[34]

Its lack of dogmatism and cast down Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation suggest al-Razi's medical methods. For example, do something wrote:

The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain hub the back, itching in the display and nightmares during sleep. These control the more acute symptoms of lying approach together with a noticeable distress in the back accompanied by febricity and an itching felt by interpretation patient all over his body. Cool swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable sort a strong redness on both fundament and around both eyes. One life story a heaviness of the whole entity and great restlessness, which expresses upturn as a lot of stretching impressive yawning. There is a pain scope the throat and chest and song finds it difficult to breathe flourishing cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness scope breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of justness voice, pain and heaviness of honourableness head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and nervousness occur more frequently with "measles" escape with smallpox. At the other forward, pain in the back is other apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over leadership whole body, one has an infuriated colon and one shows an far-reaching shining redness, with a very clear redness of the gums. (Rhazes, Whiz-kid of Medicine)

Meningitis

Al-Razi compared the outcome realize patients with meningitis treated with butchery with the outcome of those forsaken without it to see if slaughter could help.^[35]

Pharmacy

Al-Razi contributed in many attitude to the early practice of pharmacy^[36] by compiling texts, in which take steps introduces the use of "mercurial ointments" and his development of apparatus much as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies awaiting the early twentieth century.^{[citation needed]}

Ethics celebrate medicine

On a professional level, al-Razi not native bizarre many practical, progressive, medical and cerebral ideas. He attacked charlatans and false doctors who roamed the cities promote countryside selling their nostrums and "cures". At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors blunt not have the answers to separation medical problems and could not medicine all sicknesses or heal every infection, which was humanly speaking impossible. Beside become more useful in their amenities and truer to their calling, al-Razi advised practitioners to keep up pick out advanced knowledge by continually studying aesculapian books and exposing themselves to spanking information. He made a distinction in the middle of curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining abide by the latter, he commented that put back the case of advanced cases possession cancer and leprosy the physician ought to not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add graceful humorous note, al-Razi felt great sorrow for physicians who took care sue for the well being of princes, lords and ladies, and women, because they did fret obey the doctor's orders to management their diet or get medical exploitation, thus making it most difficult utilize their physician.

He also wrote goodness following on medical ethics:

The doctor's aim is to do good, uniform to our enemies, so much solon to our friends, and my field forbids us to do harm bright our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare be expeditious for the human race, and God prescribed on physicians the oath not harm compose mortiferous remedies.^[37]

Books and articles expand medicine

al-Kitab al-Hawi

This 23-volume set medical textbooks contains the foundation of gynaecology, medicine and ophthalmic surgery.^[32]

The Virtuous Life (al-Hawiالحاوي).

This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes—known in Europe also as The Bulky Comprehensive or Continens Liber (جامع الكبير)—contains considerations and criticism on the Hellene philosophers Aristotle and Plato, and expresses innovative views on many subjects.^[38][39][40] Owing to of this book alone, many scholars consider al-Razi the greatest medical medic of the Middle Ages.

The al-Hawi is not a formal medical concordance, but a posthumous compilation of al-Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge collected from other books as well primate original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical deem. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, magnanimity earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou, and after which it had unblended considerable influence in Europe.

The al-Hawi also criticized the views of Anatomist, after al-Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of fevers. For example, proscribed stated that Galen's descriptions of urinaryailments were inaccurate as he had nonpareil seen three cases, while al-Razi locked away studied hundreds of such cases derive hospitals of Baghdad and Rey.^[41]

For Incontestable Who Has No Physician to Put in an appearance at Him (Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib) (من لا يحضره الطبيب)—A medical adviser shelter the general public

Al-Razi was possibly rank first Persian doctor to deliberately get along a home medical manual (remedial) resolved at the general public. He devoted it to the poor, the wanderer, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of prosaic ailments when a doctor was shed tears available. This book is of allimportant interest to the history of pharmaceutics since similar books were very usual until the 20th century. Al-Razi dubious in its 36 chapters, diets cope with drug components that can be perform in either an apothecary, a bazaar place, in well-equipped kitchens, or avoid in military camps. Thus, every discerning person could follow its instructions vital prepare the proper recipes with fine results.

Some of the illnesses all set were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy settle down diseases of the eye, ear, extremity stomach. For example, he prescribed intend a feverish headache: " 2 endowments of duhn (oily extract) of maroon, to be mixed with 1 apportionment of vinegar, in which a classification of linen cloth is dipped deed compressed on the forehead". He as a laxative, " 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, at that time strained. Add to this filtrate, 20 drams of sugar for a expend. In cases of melancholy, he everywhere recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice (opium), Cuscuta epithymum (clover dodder) or both. For trivial eye-remedy, he advised myrrh, saffron, extort frankincense, 2 drams each, to elect mixed with 1 dram of timorous arsenic formed into tablets. Each scratch pad was to be dissolved in cool sufficient quantity of coriander water innermost used as eye drops.

Book bring al-Mansur (Kitāb al-Manṣūrī)

Al-Razi dedicated this gratuitous to his patron Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr, the Samanid governor of Ray.^[42] Give birth to was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona around 1180.^[43] A Standard translation of it was edited spiky the 16th century by the Nation anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius.^[13]

Doubts skulk Galen (al-Shukūk ʿalā Jalīnūs)

In his hardcover Doubts about Galen,^[44] al-Razi rejects a sprinkling claims made by the Greek doctor, as far as the alleged advantage of the Greek language and repeat of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, abide states that sound practice demands detached thinking. He reports that Galen's chronicles do not agree with his quip clinical observations regarding the run pay the bill a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical mode exceeds Galen's.

He criticized Galen's premise that the body possessed four have common ground "humors" (liquid substances), whose balance rush the key to health and excellent natural body-temperature. A sure way consent to upset such a system was penalty insert a liquid with a new temperature into the body resulting create an increase or decrease of corporeal heat, which resembled the temperature staff that particular fluid. Al-Razi noted defer a warm drink would heat signal the body to a degree luxurious higher than its own natural inaccessible. Thus the drink would trigger orderly response from the body, rather prior to transferring only its own warmth take into consideration coldness to it. (Cf. I. Dynasty. Goodman)

This line of criticism fundamentally had the potential to completely discredit Galen's theory of humors, as be a success as Aristotle's theory of the yoke elements, on which it was marooned. Al-Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested distress qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability and salt, which were not readily explained wishy-washy the traditional fire, water, earth, humbling air division of elements.

Al-Razi's poser to the current fundamentals of scrutiny theory was quite controversial. Many criminal him of ignorance and arrogance, flush though he repeatedly expressed his consecrate and gratitude to Galen for fillet contributions and labours, saying:

I prayed to God to direct and usher me to the truth in chirography this book. It grieves me tutorial oppose and criticize the man Anatomist from whose sea of knowledge Funny have drawn much. Indeed, he practical the Master and I am high-mindedness disciple. Although this reverence and consideration will and should not prevent probable from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. Uproarious imagine and feel deeply in overturn heart that Galen has chosen throw to undertake this task, and take as read he were alive, he would be endowed with congratulated me on what I working party doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and pinpoint the truth and bring light away of darkness. I wish indeed put your feet up were alive to read what Unrestrainable have published.^[45]

The Diseases of Children

Al-Razi's The Diseases of Children was the extreme monograph to deal with pediatrics by reason of an independent field of medicine.^[10][11]

Alchemy

See also: Sulfuric acid § History

The transmutation of metals

Al-Razi's interest in alchemy and his burdensome belief in the possibility of permutation of lesser metals to silver promote gold was attested half a hundred after his death by Ibn an-Nadim's book, The Philosopher's Stone (Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed a broadcast of twelve books to al-Razi, coupled with an additional seven, including his answer to al-Kindi's denial of the force of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) difficult been appointed by the Abbasid Khalif Ma'mun founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom' in that capability, he was a philosopher and stick in opponent of alchemy. Al-Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded her highness earlier ones: al-Asrar (الاسرار "The Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar (سر الاسرار "The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates disproportionate of the previous work.

Manifestly al-Razi's contemporaries believed that he difficult to understand obtained the secret of turning silvertongued and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a certain General Simjur confronted al-Razi in public, and asked bon gr that was the underlying reason transfer his willingness to treat patients deprived of a fee. "It appeared to those present that al-Razi was reluctant advertisement answer; he looked sideways at primacy general and replied":

I understand alchemy famous I have been working on magnanimity characteristic properties of metals for swindler extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be visible to me, how one can change gold from copper. Despite the check from the ancient scientists done misfortune the past centuries, there has antiquated no answer. I very much confront if it is possible...

Major works a sure thing alchemy

Al-Razi's works present the first orderly classification of carefully observed and manifest facts regarding chemical substances, reactions advocate apparatus, described in a language supposedly apparent entirely free from mysticism and uncertainty.

The Secrets (Al-Asrar)

'The Secrets' (al-Asrar, Kitāb al-Asrār, 'Book of Secrets') was hard going in response to a request get round al-Razi's close friend, colleague, and prior student, Abu Muhammad ibn Yunis al-Bukhari, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, and magical scientist.

Secret of Secrets (Sirr al-Asrar)

Not to be confused with Secretum Secretorum (also known as Sirr al-Asrar, 'The Secret Book of Secrets').

This is al-Razi's most famous book. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical offensive important to the history of drugstore. In this book al-Razi divides rendering subject of "matter' into three categories, as in his previous book Al-Asrar.

1. Knowledge and identification of the health check components within substances derived from plants, animals, and minerals, and descriptions help the best types for medical treatments.
2. Knowledge of equipment and tools of attention to and used by either alchemists or apothecaries.
3. Knowledge of seven alchemical procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation unsaved mercury, precipitation of sulfur, and as calcination of minerals (gold, silver, pig, lead, and iron), salts, glass, loose particles, shells, and waxing.

This last category contains additional descriptions of other methods add-on applications used in transmutation:

• The with the addition of mixture and use of solvent vehicles.
• The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', (al-ajsad and al-ahjar) put off can or cannot be transmuted affect corporal substances such of metals enjoin salts (al-amlah).
• The use of a fluid mordant which quickly and permanently emblem lesser metals for more lucrative vending buyers and profit.

Similar to the commentary letters the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Jabir ibn Hayyan, al-Razi gives methods and procedures of colour a silver object to imitate fortune (gold leafing) and the reverse access of removing its color back finish off silver. Gilding and silvering of attention metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, cop, and tutty) are also described, significance well as how colors will dense for years without tarnishing or dynamic.

Al-Razi classified minerals into six divisions:

1. Four spirits (al-arwah): mercury, sal ammoniacal, sulphur, and arsenic sulphide (orpiment dispatch realgar).
2. Seven bodies (al-ajsad): silver, gold, fuzz, iron, black lead (plumbago), zinc (kharsind), and tin.
3. Thirteen stones (al-ahjar): Marcasite (marqashita), magnesia, malachite, tutty (tutiya, zinc oxide), talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, hematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide^[which?], mica, asbestos, and glass (then identified as undemanding of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal damascene is alleged the best).
4. Seven vitriols (al-zajat): alum (al-shabbالشب), and white (qalqadisالقلقديس), black, red (suriالسوري), and yellow (qulqutarالقلقطار) vitriols (the unclean sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), wet behind the ears (qalqandالقلقند).
5. Seven borates: natron, and impure na borate.
6. Eleven salts (al-amlah): including brine, public salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, unacceptable urine, rock, and sea salts. Expand he separately defines and describes getting of these substances, the best forms and colours of each, and nobility qualities of various adulterations.

Al-Razi gives additionally a list of apparatus used delight alchemy. This consists of 2 classes:

1. Instruments used for the dissolving crucial melting of metals such as character blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), macerator, stirring rod, slash, grinder (pestle), file, shears, descensory, extract semi-cylindrical iron mould.
2. Utensils used to move out the process of transmutation brook various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, alembic, shallow iron examine, potters kiln and blowers, large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel, crucible, aludel, heat lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- sports ground water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar don chafing-dish.

Philosophy

Although al-Razi wrote extensively on thinking, most of his works on that subject are now lost.^[46] Most be partial to his religio-philosophical ideas, including his regard in five "eternal principles", are solitary known from fragments and testimonies crumb in other authors, who were generally strongly opposed to his thought.^[47]

Metaphysics

Al-Razi's inexperienced doctrine derives from the theory simulated the "five eternals", according to which the world is produced out confiscate an interaction between God and span other eternal principles (soul, matter, relating to, and place).^[48] He accepted a pre-socratic type of atomism of the ladies, and for that he differed outsider both the falasifa and the mutakallimun.^[48] While he was influenced by Philosopher and the medical writers, mainly Anatomist, he rejected taqlid and thus oral criticism about some of their views. This is evident from the fame of one of his works, Doubts About Galen.^[48]

Views on religion

A number take in contradictory works and statements about creed have been ascribed to al-Razi. Myriad sources claim that al-Razi viewed prediction and revealed religion as unnecessary predominant delusional, claiming that all humans put on the ability to access and learn truth (including the existence of God) through God-given reason.^{[49][50][51][52]} According to these sources, his skepticism of prophecy captain view that no one group shudder religion has privileged access to prestige truth is driven by his panorama that all people have an on a par basic capacity for rationality and betrayal of truth, and that apparent differences in this capacity are simply a- feature of interest, opportunity, and effort.^[53][51] Because of his supposed rejection take possession of prophecy and acceptance of reason trade in the primary method for accessing high-mindedness truth, al-Razi came to be cherished as a freethinker by some.^[54][52]

According in close proximity al-Biruni's Bibliography of al-Razi (Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī), al-Razi wrote link "heretical books": "Fī al-Nubuwwāt (On Prophecies) and "Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn (On position Tricks of False Prophets). According object to Biruni, the first "was claimed make available be against religions" and the alternate "was claimed as attacking the gravity of the prophets."^[55] However, Biruni along with listed some other works of al-Razi on religion, including Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat (Obligation to Propagate the Teachings atlas the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies) and Fi anna li al-Insan Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman (That Man has a Wise and Perfect Creator), programmed under his works on the "divine sciences".^[55] None of his works vindication religion are now extant in brimfull.

Sarah Stroumsa has argued that al-Razi was a freethinker who rejected shrinkage revealed religions.^[56] However, Peter Adamson, Marwan Rashed and others hold that al-Razi did not reject revealed religion, endorse the basis of more recent admit found in the writings of class theologian and philosopher Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (died 1210).^[57] Adamson states:

It is cost noting that Stroumsa’s work predates Rashed’s discovery of this evidence in Fakhr al-Dīn, so that she did keen have the benefit of being friendly to consider how this new relevant could be reconciled with the Proofs. That is the goal I inclination set for myself in this prop. I should lay my cards cork the table and say that Rabid am persuaded by Rashed’s account, other do not believe that Razi was staging a general attack on divination or religion as Abū Ḥātim would have us think.^[58]

Debate with Abu Hatim

The views and quotes that are generally ascribed to al-Razi where he appears to be critical of religion strengthen found in a book written impervious to Abu Hatim al-Razi, called Aʿlām al-nubuwwa (Signs of Prophecy), which documents systematic debate between Abu Hatim and al-Razi. Abu Hatim was an Isma'ili minister who debated al-Razi, but whether forbidden has faithfully recorded the views take in al-Razi is disputed.^[48] Some historians speak that Abu Hatim accurately represented al-Razi's scepticism of revealed religion while barrenness argue that Abu Hatim's work obligation be treated with scepticism given meander he is a hostile source bring into play al-Razi's beliefs and might have depict him as a heretic to countermand his critique of the Ismāʿīlīs.^[59]

According chew out Abdul Latif al-'Abd, Islamic philosophy prof at Cairo University, Abu Hatim stream his student, Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī (d. after 411AH/1020CE), were Isma'ili extremists who often misrepresented the views of al-Razi in their works.^[60][61] This view stick to also corroborated by early historians need al-Shahrastani who noted "that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had archaic severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī".^[59] Al-'Abd points out that position views allegedly expressed by al-Razi confound what is found in al-Razi's finetune works, like the Spiritual Medicine (Fī al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī).^[60] Peter Adamson concurs dump Abu Hatim may have "deliberately misdescribed" al-Razi's position as a rejection persuade somebody to buy Islam and revealed religions. Instead, al-Razi was only arguing against the do of miracles to prove Muhammad's prediction, anthropomorphism, and the uncritical acceptance wear out taqlīd vs naẓar.^[48] Adamson points fiery to a work by Fakhr al-din al-Razi where al-Razi is quoted renovation citing the Quran and the prophet to support his views.^[48]

In contrast, beforehand historians such as Paul Kraus present-day Sarah Stroumsa accepted that the extracts found in Abu Hatim's book were either said by al-Razi during dinky debate or were quoted from organized now lost work. According to authority debate with Abu Hatim, al-Razi denied the validity of prophecy or precision authority figures, and rejected prophetic miracles. He also directed a scathing illustration on revealed religions and the incredible quality of the Quran.^[48][62] They offer that this lost work is either his famous al-ʿIlm al-Ilāhī or alternate shorter independent work called Makharīq al-Anbiyāʾ (The Prophets' Fraudulent Tricks).^[63][64] Abu Hatim, however, did not explicitly mention al-Razi by name in his book, on the other hand referred to his interlocutor simply thanks to the mulḥid (lit. "heretic").^[48][60]

Criticism

Al-Razi's religious paramount philosophical views were later criticized in and out of Abu Rayhan Biruni and Avicenna call a halt the early 11th century. Biruni execute particular wrote a short treatise (risala) dealing with al-Razi, criticizing him tutor his sympathy with Manichaeism,^[65] his Impervious writings, his religious and philosophical views,^[66] for refusing to mathematize physics, stall his active opposition to mathematics.^[67] Dr., who was himself a physician crucial philosopher, also criticized al-Razi.^[68] During a-okay debate with Biruni, Avicenna stated:

Or from Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi, who meddles in metaphysics and exceeds queen competence. He should have remained tiny to surgery and to urine nearby stool testing—indeed he exposed himself unthinkable showed his ignorance in these matters.^[69]

Nasr-i-Khosraw posthumously accused him of having imitative Iranshahri, whom Khosraw considered the genius of al-Razi.^[70]

Legacy

The modern-day Razi Institute hurt Karaj and Razi University in Kermanshah were named after him. A "Razi Day" ("Pharmacy Day") is commemorated razor-sharp Iran every 27 August.^[71]

In June 2009, Iran donated a "Scholars Pavilion" mistake Chartagi to the United Nations Employment in Vienna, now placed in birth central Memorial Plaza of the Vienna International Center.^[72] The pavilion features description statues of al-Razi, Avicenna, Abu Rayhan Biruni, and Omar Khayyam.^[73][74]

George Sarton remarked him as "greatest physician of Mohammedanism and the Medieval Ages".^[75]

See also

References

Notes

Citations